The right to vote in the United States has never been a fixed inheritance. It has been repeatedly restricted, expanded, and contested.
Constitutional Protections—and Limits
The Constitution bars denying suffrage on grounds of race or color, sex, or age for citizens 18 and older. Yet states retain broad authority over eligibility and administration. Some states restrict voting by people convicted of felonies, temporarily or indefinitely. About 5.3 million American adults are estimated to be currently or permanently ineligible because of felony convictions.
Citizens in U.S. territories also face a major representation gap. Roughly 4.3 million citizens living in Washington, D.C., Puerto Rico, and other territories do not have the same federal representation as residents of the 50 states. Territorial citizens lack voting representation in the Senate and Electoral College; Washington, D.C., gained presidential electors through the Twenty-third Amendment.
Registration as a Gate
All states except North Dakota require citizens to register. The National Voter Registration Act of 1993 sought to make registration easier through driver’s-license centers, schools, libraries, disability centers, and mail registration. Some states permit registration on Election Day.
Nevertheless, an estimated 50 million Americans remain unregistered, with obstacles especially affecting low-income citizens, racial and linguistic minorities, Native Americans, and people with disabilities.
Voting rights are therefore not only about whether a ballot is legally permitted. They are also about whether a person can realistically reach the system that provides it.
