Cuneiform inscription, eastern Turkey

When memory moved to clay and stone

As societies grew more complex, they needed accounting and writing to manage people and goods.

Human History: The Invention of Writing—and Why It Spread

Historic stone tablet featuring intricate Chinese calligraphy in an outdoor pavilion.

Invented more than once

Writing emerged independently in Mesopotamia, Egypt, China, and lowland Mesoamerica. Cuneiform began as pictures that became abstract signs.

Human History: The Invention of Writing—and Why It Spread